Stadts Doele en Anatomie (Anatomy Chamber) Delft

The Stads Doele (Municipal Shooting Range) and Anatomiekamer (Anatomy Theater) in Delft are historical aspects of the city's rich cultural and scientific heritage (fig. 1). These institutions played significant roles in the civic and scientific life of Delft during the early modern period, reflecting broader trends in the Netherlands and Europe regarding civic defense and the study of medicine and anatomy.

Anatomiekamer (Anatomy Theater)

Encouraged by the city government, which desired to promote a healthy living environment in the city in the second half of the seventeenth century, physicians and surgeons, united in the medical-surgical guild, began to conduct research and experiments, and became the main practitioners of the natural sciences in Delft.

An important location for scientists and artists interested in scientific discovery in Delft was the Anatomiekamer, which opened in 1614. In that year, the city government granted the surgeons' guild permission to set up the baptismal chapel of the Oude Kerk (Old Church) for this purpose. At that time, the guild comprised thirteen surgeons who had acquired their skills through practical experience. This guild fell under the oversight of a select few university-trained physicians, numbering no more than three or four, who were appointed by the city or hospital.

Following the devastation caused by the infamous De Delftse Donderslag (Delft Thunderclap) on the morning of October 12, 1654, which heavily damaged the existing building on Verwersdijk, the entire northeastern part of the city was subsequently reorganized. The Pesthuis (Pest House)^{On December 29, 1657, the regents of the Oude and Nieuwe Gasthuis (Old and New Hospitals) received a brand new Pesthuis (Pest House) from the city government. It was built on the eastern side of the city, at the location of the current Vondelstraat. The city mayors decided to turn necessity into a virtue and immediately relocated the Pesthuis outside the city. According to the latest medical insights, those suffering from such a highly contagious disease are better isolated.} on Verwersdijk was located outside the city. The vacated building of the former chapel of the Maria Magdalena convent, on the east side of the Verwersdijk across from the Oude Vercke Marckt and Diertien Huijsen, was renovated and partly made available to the surgeons' guild.^{Before the Reformation, Mary Magdalen was one of a dozen convents and monasteries in Delft. During the plague years of 1557-58, it was put into service to supplement the nearby Old Gasthuis, or hospital, and became known as a plague house (pesthuis).}

The new premises of the Anatomiekamer was more expansive than its former location. Two separate sculptures by Pieter Rijckx on the themes of civic guards and anatomy were installed above gates of the two institutions, which were set next to each other (fig. 2). The city magistrate spared no expense in creating one of the finest monumental outdoor spaces of Delft.^{Kaldenbach, Kees. "Nieuwe Schutterij Doelen (New Shooting Range)." Vermeer. Accessed February 22, 2023. https://kalden.home.xs4all.nl/dart/d-b-schutterij.htm.} Attached to the Anatomiekamer was a library and a museum, which, like the one in Leiden, was essentially a Kunst und Wunderkammer (Cabinet of Curiosities)^{A Kunst und Wunderkammer, or Cabinet of Curiosities, was a collection or room in Renaissance and Baroque Europe filled with a wide array of objects showcasing the wonders of the natural world, art, and science. These precursors to modern museums contained natural wonders (Naturalia), man-made artworks (Artificialia), scientific instruments (Scientifica), exotic items from abroad (Exotica), and marvels of nature (Mirabilia). They served educational and entertainment purposes, displayed the collector's wealth and sophistication, and facilitated scientific research. Kunst und Wunderkammern played a crucial role in the development of science and museums, influencing the systematic study and classification of natural and man-made objects, and laying the groundwork for the establishment of modern museums for public education and enjoyment.} containing rarities, often with moral-philosophical implications.

Lectures were held in the Anatomiekamer on a weekly basis. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), often a guest at the guild, and the physician Reinier de Graaf (1641–1673),^{de Graaf sent Leeuwenhoek's insect observations to the Royal Society.} Delft physician and anatomical researcher, were the most prominent. "Historically, many physicians, scientists, mathematicians, and lawyers living in Delft had studied at the University of Leiden. A prime example is Jacob Spoors (1595-1677), who would become a particularly important individual in Vermeer’s network of friends and colleagues interested in exploring the natural world through art, science, mathematics, and optical devices. Spoors began his professional career as a surgeon in his native Delft in 1614, the very year that the Anatomy Theater was founded."^{Arthur K. Wheelock Jr., "Exploring the physical and spiritual world," in Vermeer's Delft, edited by David de Haan, Arthur K. Wheelock Jr., Babs van Eijk, and Ingrid van der Vlis (Zwolle: Waanders Uitgevers, Museum Prinsenhof Delft, 2023), 23.}

fig. 2 **Gezicht op de Stadsdoelen en Chirurgijnskamer te Delft Stadts Doele en Anatomie ofte ontleedkamer voor de chirurgyns, eertyts te samen t' Marie Magdalenen Convent** (A View of the City Shooting Range and Surgeons' Room , formerly together at the Mary Magdalene Convent)
Print maker: Coenraet Decker (mentioned on object)
Publisher: Pieter Smith
Publisher: Arnold Bon (possibly)1678 - 1703
Engraving, 17.6 x 26.6 cm.
Rijksmseum, Amsterdam

The Physicians, surgeons, and artists who attending these gatherings, such as Spoors, Vermeer, and Van Leeuwenhoek were also interested in scientific instruments that required lenses, like microscopes. Van Leeuwenhoek. can be recognized in a portrir of an anatomy lesson by Cornelis ’s-Gravesande (1631-1691), who is the only person in the painting who was not a doctor or a surgeon, but was nevertheless included owing to his status as a man of science. For thirty years from 1661, ’s-Gravesande was Delft’s city anatomist.

Anatomy lessons and corpses

The practice of using the bodies of executed criminals for anatomical study and medical training has a long history in Europe, dating back to the Renaissance. The University of Leiden, one of the oldest universities in the Netherlands, established in 1575, was at the forefront of medical education during the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1594, it established the Theatrum Anatomicum, one of the first anatomical theatres in Europe. During winters, professors of anatomy held public dissections of cadavers for a fee-paying audience of students and surgeons, but also curious members of the public, as there was no teaching in the summer. The ceremony of dissection was accompanied by music (a small orchestra or one or two flutists); perfumes were diffused in the auditorium, and big candles illuminated the autopsy table and the praelector in ceremonial attire. The autopsy procedure gradually turned into a solemn performance, the purpose of which was education and admonition of the spectators in the spirit of the vanity and transience of life, an idea so typical for the Baroque epoch. Without exaggeration, the Leiden Theatrum Anatomicum can be described as a 17th-century tourist attraction of the first order, depicted in several prints and drawings, described in books, and celebrated in many travelogues.

Like other medical institutions of its time, The University of Leiden, did not have a "patent" on corpses in the modern sense of exclusive rights to a particular invention or process. However, it did receive a form of legal permission or privilege from the authorities to claim the bodies of executed criminals for anatomical dissection and study. This privilege was part of the broader legal and social framework of the time, which allowed certain institutions to use the bodies of criminals for scientific and educational purposes.

The supply of corpses for anatomical study, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries, was primarily through legal channels, with executed criminals being the main source. This was because dissection was often considered part of the criminal's punishment, extending beyond their execution. The bodies of these individuals were seen as property of the state, which could be used for the benefit of medical science and the training of physicians and surgeons. The practice reflected the societal views on crime, punishment, and the value of scientific knowledge.

The Anatomy Theater in the Netherlands

The founding, evolution, organization, and problems of anatomy theaters in the seventeenth-century Netherlands are deeply intertwined with the period's scientific awakening and the broader cultural and intellectual currents of the Dutch Golden Age. The University of Leiden, founded in 1575, played a crucial role in this development, establishing one of the earlies anatomy thatres in the Netherlands. 1594, is one of the earliest examples. These facilities were initially created for the education of medical students and professionals, providing a formal venue for dissections and anatomical lectures.

Over time, the function of anatomy theaters expanded beyond educational purposes to include public demonstrations. This shift reflected a growing public interest in science and medicine, as well as a broader cultural fascination with the workings of the human body. In cities like Amsterdam, Leiden, and Delft, anatomy theaters became sites of significant scientific and social activity. They were not only centers for medical learning but also attracted artists, scholars, and the general public, eager to gain insights into human anatomy.

Anatomy theaters were typically associated with universities or guilds of surgeons and physicians. These institutions organized the dissections, which were often conducted on the bodies of executed criminals, a practice sanctioned by local authorities. The theaters themselves were architectural marvels, designed to allow attendees to observe the dissection process closely. A central dissection table was surrounded by tiered seating, creating an amphitheater-like environment. Prominent figures, such as Frederik Ruysch in Amsterdam, became well-known for their dissections and preservations of anatomical specimens, contributing to the theaters' prestige and scientific importance.

The operation of anatomy theaters in the seventeenth century faced several challenges. Ethical concerns arose over the source of cadavers, primarily the bodies of criminals, leading to debates about the dignity of the deceased and the morality of dissection. Additionally, the public nature of dissections sometimes attracted sensationalism and superstition, detracting from their educational value. Preservation of specimens was another significant issue, as early methods were rudimentary, limiting the ability to study anatomy in detail over time. Despite these challenges, anatomy theaters played a crucial role in advancing medical knowledge and education, laying the groundwork for modern anatomy and surgery.

In addition to executed criminals, the supply of corpses could occasionally include unclaimed bodies, such as those of poor individuals who died in hospitals, workhouses, or prisons, although this was less common and depended on the laws and customs of the time. The university's request and subsequent granting of a patent to use the bodies of executed criminals for anatomical dissection were part of a broader European trend to improve medical knowledge and surgical skills. However, the supply of bodies for dissection was limited, largely due to religious and cultural beliefs about the sanctity of the dead body and the afterlife. The bodies of executed criminals were one of the few sources deemed legally and morally acceptable for dissection, partly because their execution was seen as a forfeiture of rights, including the right to a undisturbed burial.

In the context of the University of Leiden and other institutions of the time, these dissections were not only about advancing medical knowledge. They also served as public demonstrations of the power of science and reason over superstition and ignorance. These public dissections were often social events, attracting not just medical professionals and students but also the curious public. They were held in anatomical theaters, specially designed for this purpose, where the dissection could be viewed by an audience.

The University of Leiden's anatomical theater, established in the early 17th century, became famous for its public dissections and its collection of anatomical specimens, including skeletons and preserved organs. The theater and its activities contributed significantly to the university's reputation as a center of medical education and research.

The Nieuwe Doelen

The Delft Doelen (City Shooting Range),^{The term "doelen," from Middle Dutch "doelen" (to target-practice), equivalent to "doel" + "en."} refers to the practice of archery, located north the Anatomiekamer, was part of a network of the Doelen (shooting ranges) found in many Dutch cities during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These facilities served as headquarters for the schutterij (civic guard), a militia composed of citizen soldiers responsible for the defense of the city and maintaining public order. The Doelen provided space for military drills, shooting practice, and social gatherings of the city's militia members.^{In 1829-1831, it was remodeled into a theater, aconcert, adance hall, and a room for lectures with a coffee room, a landlord's house, and a director's office, by an unknown architect.} Demolished by De Delftse Donderslag (Delft Thunderclap), as well as the nearby quarantine hospital where plague victims were confined, the shooting range was restablised in two new buildings: The Oude Doelen, used for practicing with the crossbow, and the Nieuwe Doelen, used to practice with firearms. As a member of Delft's schutterij,^{The schutterij was a militia that for centuries had been tasked with defending Delft against external threats and maintaining order within the city. In the seventeenth century, the
Delft civic guard was divided into four standards (orange, blue, green and white), each of which
represented part of the city.} Vermeer must have frequented the Doelen on a regular basis.

The Doelen, however, was not merely a shooting range, but major social network for artists such as Vermeer. Members were drawn from the richest and most influential families. Vermeer’s membership is testimony to the social status he had achieved by this point. In 1660, Leonaert Bramer (1596–1674), of the most respected painters of Delft and close friend of the Vermeer family, decorated a room in this new Nieuwe Doelen with frescos for a sum of one thousand guilders, a sum roughly the equivelant to the cost of a small house. Bramer was was not the only artist member of the civic guard. In the records for 1674, Vermeer is also listed as a member of the first company of the orange standard; it is possible he had been a member for some time. The inventory of his estate refers to "iron armour with helmet; a pike."