The Complete Interactive Vermeer Catalogue

Critical assessment

The Girl with a Flute stands as the sole painting executed on panel, besides the Girl with a Red Hat. This similarity in support material, along with parallels in scale and subject matter, has led scholars to frequently consider these works as pendants. In fact, both young subjects direct their gaze expectantly towards the viewer, their eyes alert and mouths partially open. Each dons an exotic head covering, occupies a chair embellished with lion finials, and rests upon one arm. Illumination enters from the left in both compositions, casting light upon the left cheek, nose and chin of each figure. Furthermore, a delicate green glaze applied over the flesh tones indicates the shaded areas of their faces. Lastly, touches of color highlight the lower lips of their slightly parted mouths—turquoise in the Girl with a Flute and pink in the Girl with a Red Hat.

Arthur K. Wheelock Jr., Johannes Vermeer, 1981

The signature

No signature appears on this work.

Click here to access a complete study of Vermeer's signatures.)

Dates

c. 1665–1670
Arthur K. Wheelock Jr., The Public and the Private in the Age of Vermeer, London, 2000

c. 1665–1670
Walter Liedtke, Vermeer: The Complete Paintings, New York, 2008

c. 1665–1668
Wayne Franits, Vermeer, 2015

(Click here to access a complete study of the dates of Vermeer's paintings).

Technical report

The oak panel support, grained vertically, features beveled edges on the back. Exhibiting a slight convex warp, the panel also displays a minor check on the upper edge at the right, along with minor gouges, rubs and splinters on the back stemming from nails and handling. A thin, smooth white chalk ground was applied overall, followed by a coarsely textured gray ground. Underlying much of the painting, a reddish-brown underpainting serves as a foundation and is integrated into the tapestry design.

The application of paint is moderately thin, resulting in a rough texture on lighter sections. In the process, wet paint on the right cheek and chin was textured using a fingertip and subsequently glazed with a translucent green half-tone. In various areas of the white hues, particularly on the left collar and cuff, distinct wrinkles are observable, disturbing the surface. Small, irregularly shaped losses present across the surface may have originated from abrasion due to similar wrinkles occurring during previous restoration efforts.

* Johannes Vermeer (exh. cat., National Gallery of Art and Royal Cabinet of Paintings Mauritshuis - Washington and The Hague, 1995, edited by Arthur K. Wheelock Jr.)

The painting in its frame

(Click here to access all of Vermeer's paintings in their frames).

Provenance

Exhibitions

The painting in scale

(Click here to access all of Vermeer's paintings in scale).

Flute music & flute tradition

Shepherd Holding a Flute
Jan van Bijlert
1630–1635
79 x 65 cm.
Private collection

In antiquity, stringed instruments held a place of great esteem. The cithara, for instance, was esteemed enough to be dedicated to Apollo, while the flute was consecrated to Dionysius due to his associations with revelry and festivities. Consequently, it was regarded as one of the most basic musical instruments, and this perception endured to a considerable extent until the 17th century.

Nonetheless, in the cultural landscape of the 17th century, the flute held a multifaceted role that extended beyond its superficial portrayal as a decorative attribute. It was a musical instrument that transcended its humble origins and became an integral part of the social fabric, reflecting the evolving tastes, aspirations and values of the time.

Its depiction in shepherd portraits and Dutch genre scenes, for example, conveyed an air of sophistication and leisure, aligning with the prevailing aesthetic of the era. In these artworks, the flute often served as a visual cue for a harmonious connection between man and nature, evoking a sense of tranquility and pastoral idyll—a sentiment that resonated with the desire for balance and solace amid the bustling urban life.

However, by the 17th century, the recorder had risen above being a mere plaything: it emerged as one of several musical instruments, occasionally refined by the craftsmanship of skilled instrument-makers. It was heard by a diverse audience, and it was played by both passionate enthusiasts and accomplished musicians such as Jacob van Eyck.

The tronie: a type of painting made to sell

Man in Oriental Dress
Frans van Mieris
1665
149.9 x 11.2 cm.
Picture Gallery of Prince Willem V, The Hague

The Girl with a Flute exemplifies the popular genre within Dutch painting known as tronie, an antiquated term referring to a specific kind of image popularized by Rembrandt and his followers. tronies were derived from living models, including artists themselves, relatives or colleagues. However, their purpose wasn't to function as formal portraits—such portraits were commissioned exclusively—instead, they were kept in the artist's studio, ready to arouse potential buyers' curiosity. Old men, attractive young women, "Turks," and valiant soldiers were all customary subjects for tronien. Artists favored attire with an especially exotic appearance, offering an avenue to experiment and display their adept technique—an attribute that represented a distinct hallmark of the professional artist. Generally fashioned on a smaller scale and dimension to match a more affordable price range, tronien were eagerly sought by collectors.

The self-portrait by Frans van Mieris, one of the Netherlands' most accomplished artists, vividly captures the characteristic flair of the Dutch tronie.

Vermeer is recognized for having created three tronien in total, among them the renowned Girl with a Pearl Earring.

Jacob van Eyck & Dutch flute music

Jacob Van Eyck was undoubtedly one of the most notable figures in Dutch musical life during the Golden Age. A nobleman blind from birth, he gained widespread recognition as a carillonneur—an expert in bell casting and tuning. Additionally, he was highly esteemed for his exceptional virtuosity on the recorder. His collection Der Fluyten Lust-hof (The Flute's Garden of Delight) features demanding solo variations, preludes and fantasias that both captivate and challenge recorder players across the globe to this day.

It's recounted that Van Eyck used to spontaneously improvise music in the garden adjoining the Sint Janskerk in Utrecht, entertaining passersby and enchanting young couples. It's likely that someone must have attentively listened to and transcribed what amounts to nearly ten hours of music—akin to the way many contemporary jazz musicians operate. The apparent popularity of Van Eyck's music led his publisher, Paul Matthysz, to compile multiple collections during Van Eyck's lifetime. The intricacies involved in producing such a publication are intriguing to ponder, especially considering the fact that the composer himself couldn't transcribe the music. Der Fluyten Lust-hof stands as a remarkable testament to a craft that has regrettably fallen by the wayside in modern times. The art of improvisation was the very essence of music long before the advent of musical notation.

Containing approximately 150 pieces, Der Fluyten Lust-hof constitutes the largest collection of solo compositions for a single instrument ever printed. Van Eyck's compositions primarily revolve around variations on melodies that were in vogue during the Dutch Golden Age. The themes explored are diverse, encompassing Calvinist psalms, dances, contemporary hits and even ribald songs.

For centuries, this type of music found its place in the repertoire of an ancient instrument—the recorder. Played in courts, streets, churches, brothels and taverns, the recorder provided the musical backdrop. The collection offers a precious window into the musical universe of the late Renaissance and the early Baroque eras, showcasing intricate and abundant employment of diverse techniques.

A pendant?

Although Vermeer frequently revisited his artistic themes, creating pairs of works closely related in style or subject, there exists no concrete evidence to substantiate the notion that any of these works were conceived as true pendants intended to be displayed side by side. Nonetheless, the current work and the Girl with a Red Hat (images to the left) emerge as plausible candidates for a pendant pair. Both executed on panel, they share similar dimensions. Furthermore, both paintings depict young girls with slightly parted lips, adorned with peculiar hats—unlike any comparable headwear found in Dutch paintings of the Golden Age—casting a gentle shadow over their eyes. Both figures, featuring substantial pear-shaped pearl earrings, meet the viewer's gaze from an evocative half-light and are seated on Spanish-style chairs, with an unidentified tapestry hovering behind them. Additionally, the finest aspects of each work display comparable style and delicacy.

The most conspicuous argument against their pendant status is that the Girl with a Flute doesn't uphold the overall technical excellence of its counterpart. However, scientific analysis reveals that the inconsistencies can be reasonably attributed to the subpar state of conservation of the Girl with a Flute. Alternatively, the possibility that the work was intentionally left unfinished remains open.

In the context of painting, the term "pendant" refers to a pair of artworks that are intentionally created to be displayed together, often side by side, as complementary pieces. Pendants are typically linked by a common theme, subject matter, style or format and they are designed to enhance each other's meaning or visual impact when viewed together. The term originates from the French word "pendre," meaning "to hang."

The concept of pendants has been present in art for centuries, and examples can be traced back to ancient civilizations. However, the practice became more prominent and refined during the Renaissance and Baroque periods in Europe. Artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Titian created pendant works that engaged with each other's themes or subjects. The tradition continued to evolve through different artistic movements and styles.

Listen to period music

"Engels Lied"("English Song") [1.82 MB]
from Jacob van Eyck, Der Fluyten Lust-Hof

performed by Marion Verbruggen
http://www.bach-cantatas.com/Bio/Verbruggen-Marion.htm

Soprano recorder in c, after the transitional
instrument by Richard Haka
(Amsterdam, mid-17th century),
designed by Philippe Bolton.
This instrument, also known as "Handfluyt" or
"Van Eyck"-recorder, is particularly suitable for
playing Jacob van Eyck's music and the 17th century
Italian repertoire.

The prehistoric ancestors of the recorder—used for distance communication, ritual dances and spiritual ceremonies—were crafted from bone, ivory or wood, tracing their origins back thousands of years. An early example of a recorder-like instrument, dating back about 39,000 years, was recently unearthed in a cavern in southwest Germany, marking the oldest known musical instrument. Depictions of wind instruments, possibly recorders, appear in sculptures, carvings and paintings from the 11th to the 14th century.

Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, the recorder evolved into its "renaissance" form, coming in various sizes for ensembles. It harmonized well in "whole" consorts or contrasted with other period instruments and voices. In the early 16th century, recorders were used professionally as part of wind ensembles, accompanying instruments like shawms, cornetts, sackbuts and trumpets. In 16th-century Venice, the "pifferi" of the Doge played recorders in grand processions for the Scuola di San Marco.

Due to its accessibility (depicted in numerous Dutch paintings of the 17th century), the recorder gained popularity among amateur musicians of all social ranks, including royal households. King Henry VIII of England possessed an impressive collection of 76 recorders.

The prehistoric ancestors of the recorder—used for distance communication, ritual dances and spiritual ceremonies—were crafted from bone, ivory or wood, tracing their origins back thousands of years. An early example of a recorder-like instrument, dating back about 39,000 years, was recently unearthed in a cavern in southwest Germany, marking the oldest known musical instrument. Depictions of wind instruments, possibly recorders, appear in sculptures, carvings and paintings from the 11th to the 14th century.

Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, the recorder evolved into its "renaissance" form, coming in various sizes for ensembles. It harmonized well in "whole" consorts or contrasted with other period instruments and voices. In the early 16th century, recorders were used professionally as part of wind ensembles, accompanying instruments like shawms, cornetts, sackbuts and trumpets. In 16th-century Venice, the "pifferi" of the Doge played recorders in grand processions for the Scuola di San Marco.

Due to its accessibility (depicted in numerous Dutch paintings of the 17th century), the recorder gained popularity among amateur musicians of all social ranks, including royal households. King Henry VIII of England possessed an impressive collection of 76 recorders.

A notable figure of the 17th century, Jacob van Eyck, blind but accomplished, stood out as a recorder virtuoso and composer of Der fluyten lust-hof (Amsterdam 1646–1649), a monumental collection of music for a solo wind instrument.

In response to evolving musical preferences in the late 16th and 17th centuries, the recorder was redesigned as a solo instrument. This new "baroque recorder," constructed in three pieces, offered enhanced accuracy and a full chromatic range of two octaves. With a reedy, powerful sound, it excelled in chamber music and solo concerti, maintaining its popularity until the early 19th century.

Integral to the recorder is its head with an internal plug or "block" (hence "Blockflöte" in German). The windway guides the player's breath to a sharp edge or "lip" (voicing edge) at the mouth's base.

The recorder features seven finger holes (sometimes with one or two doubled for semitones) and a thumb hole on the back for octaving. A recorder consort typically comprises the "descant" or "soprano," "treble" or "alto," tenor and bass instruments. Sopranino and great bass instruments are also common choices.

Womens' hats

The Artist's Bride of Three Days (detail)
Rembrandt van Rijn
Silverpoint on prepared vellum, 18.5 x 10.7 cm.
Berlin, Kupferstichkabinett

In contemporary French and Dutch language, the term "hat" could metaphorically refer to a man, while "coif" was associated with women.

Traditionally, women were discouraged from wearing the broad felt hats that were commonly worn by men in public until around the mid-1600s, when it gradually became more socially acceptable. Fashion-forward young women in Holland occasionally sported feathered hats during outings to the countryside or seaside, using them as a special form of sun protection.The particular style of hat worn by the woman depicted in this painting stands out as unusual, deliberately included for its distinctive character and visual impact.

Conversely, wide-brimmed straw hats were embraced by women across all social classes throughout Europe. These hats served the same protective purpose as their more expensive counterparts and likely held a certain allure for men. In art, they often symbolized rural life.

In the 17th-century Netherlands, women's hats were more than just a fashion statement; they were a reflection of social status, religious beliefs, and even marital standing. During this period, particularly the Dutch Golden Age, the Calvinist influence encouraged modesty in dress, but that didn't mean women's headgear lacked style or variety. However, even wealthy women tended to favor more modest, less ostentatious styles compared to their counterparts in Catholic countries like France or Italy.

Portrait of Catharina Hooghsaet (detail)
Rembrandt van Rijn
1657
Oil on canvas, 123.5 cm × 95 cm.
National Museum Cardiff, Cardiff

One of the most common types of head covering was the coif, a close-fitting cap usually made of linen. Often worn under other hats or bonnets, coifs could be simple or intricately embroidered. For colder weather, hoods made of velvet or silk were popular and could be either simple or elaborately decorated with trimmings like lace or ribbons. Broad-brimmed hats, often made of straw, were also in vogue, especially for outdoor activities. These hats could be adorned with anything from feathers to flowers, adding a touch of individuality.

Caps and bonnets were another staple, frequently worn over a coif. These could range from simple linen pieces to more elaborate creations made of luxurious materials and adorned with ribbons or lace. The millstone collar, although not a hat, was a unique feature of Dutch fashion that framed the face much like a headpiece. Made of starched linen, these collars were often intricately pleated and could be quite elaborate, adding a distinctive touch to a woman's appearance.

Regional variations also played a significant role in the types of headgear women wore. Different areas of the Netherlands had their own traditional styles, often reserved for special occasions and holidays. These could be quite distinct and elaborate, reflecting local customs and materials.

Marital status was another factor that could influence a woman's choice of head covering. While married women often opted for more modest styles, younger, unmarried women had the freedom to choose more fashionable or elaborate hats.

Learning how to play music

The Music Lesson
Gerard ter Borch
c.1665–1675
Oil on canvas, 63.6 × 50.4 cm.
Art Institue of Chicago, Chicago

The significant role of music in Dutch society found ample support within the Dutch educational system, which could arguably be regarded as one of the most exceptional in Europe during its time. Primary schools were universally accessible, catering to diverse social strata and dotting nearly every village. While the core curriculum centered on reading, writing, arithmetic and religious studies, supplementary music instruction occasionally found its place. Moving to the secondary tier, musical tutelage was extended to boys ranging from nine to seventeen years of age. Notably, the presence of Latin Schools in major towns perpetuated musical education, progressing into the realm of musical theory within the gymnasium (grammar school). However, a dedicated mentor was requisite for substantial scholarly pursuit. Those of lower socioeconomic status could earn their livelihood by aiding the master instructor.

Aside from pedagogical endeavors, budding musicians could explore several pathways. Larger Dutch municipalities employed stadspeellieden (municipal musicians), who were predominantly instrumentalists specializing in string or wind instruments. Their roles exhibited a spectrum of responsibilities, albeit frequently yielding meager remuneration.

The Music Lesson
Jan Steen
c. 1650
Oil on panel, 31.8 x 25.4 cm.
The Frick Pittsburg, Pittsburg

The nature of Vermeer's musical instruction warrants consideration. As the sole progeny of an innkeeper, Vermeer's upbringing unfolded in taverns where conviviality, commerce, tobacco, libations and music intermingled harmoniously, amid canvases obtained from his father's art trade. Moreover, it is apparent that music held some significance within the artist's familial milieu.

Vermeer's paternal step-grandfather, Nicolaes ("Claes") Corstiaensz. van der Minne, earned his livelihood as a professional musician—a speelman—besides his trade as a tailor. Documentation attests to Nicolaes's participation in public celebrations and on occasions necessitating his musical talents. His possession of diverse musical instruments, and likely instructing his progeny in musical pursuits, lends credence to the notion that he might have acquainted his son, Reynier, with a musical instrument, plausibly a flute. This lineage situates Reynier in a musical ambiance, making it plausible that he engendered a genuine affinity for music in his two offspring, Gertruy and Johannes. Though conclusive evidence remains elusive, it is reasonable to speculate that the artist's familial ties to music contribute to the pronounced recurrence of musical themes in his oeuvre.

Girl with a Flute: is it or isn't it by Vermeer's hand

In a recent inquiry, the research team at the National Gallery of Art employed cutting-edge technology to investigate the materials and painting technique employed in Girl with a Flute, which unearthed unexpected revelations that deviate from the prevailing technical data on Vermeer. The observations encompass various deviations, such as a notably coarse and brushmarked texture on the upper ground layer, an underpainting in the blue jacket that doesn't contribute to form modeling, simpler highlights in the attire and the use of coarsely ground pigments in the upper paint layers. This investigation also disclosed a greenish shadow applied with a roughness and thickness uncommon for Vermeer's approach. Further insights include prominent drying cracks stemming from shrinking that alter the surface's appearance, hinting at a somewhat unrefined finish due to an excessive count of broken bristles in the paint. Additionally, peculiarities like an unconventional green highlight near the girl's mouth, non-linear holes in the flute and inaccuracies in the conical hat's striped pattern were identified.

Based on these findings, the researchers of the National Gallery of Art assert that Vermeer likely did not directly contribute to the crafting of the painting. Instead, they propose that the tronie was produced by a contemporary artist who shared a close association with Vermeer and possessed a comprehensive grasp of his artistic techniques. This artist not only drew inspiration from Vermeer's style but also emulated his distinctive methodology. Notably, the creative process behind Girl with a Red Hat and Girl with a Flute closely parallels each other, suggesting that the creator of the latter piece might have observed Vermeer at work. Crucially, the American research team perceives the absence of technical finesse required to replicate Vermeer's masterful brushwork and nuanced effects, characterizing the artist as someone who understood the process, but was not able to achieve its effect. Furthermore, they discern signs of an unsophisticated composition and a novice application of paint, suggesting a lack of mastery in the craft.

Evidently, Girl with a Red Hat excels artistically in its details when compared to Girl with a Flute. Notable distinctions arise, such as the stylized portrayal of reflected sunlight on the lion's-head finial of the chair, showcasing a more pronounced stylization in the former piece. The softness of the girl's visage exhibits greater conviction, though it diverges from the intricate modeling in works like Girl with a Pearl Earring and Study of a Young Woman. When situated within Vermeer's broader body of work, the somewhat angular facial modeling found in The Lacemaker and Mistress and Maid also align with the technique employed here. Despite occasional descriptions of certain details as weak or awkward, the presence of challenges in rendering hands is observable in various Vermeer paintings. It's worth noting that Girl with a Flute has suffered more degradation over time compared to Girl with a Red Hat, with underlayers exposed, top layer details eroded and retouching evident in several areas, affecting the clarity of the painting.

Despite the National Gallery's findings and their interpretations, the painting was exhibited as an authentic Vermeer at the 2023 Vermeer retrospective. The majority of Vermeer scholars have refuted the Gallery's conclusion as well, with the presumption that it was likely created for study and preceded Vermeer's other three tronies.

The two exhibition curators, Pieter Roelofs and Gregor Weber, expressed their dissent as follows: "Two important questions are how an inexperienced assistant or amateur was able to achieve this innovative composition and why Vermeer, as an instructor or mentor, did not alert the painter in question to the ‘mistakes’ he or she was making. We also find several of the apparent anomalies in Girl with a Flute, such as the coarse upper layer showing visible brushstrokes and the thickly applied green earth around the face, in The Love Letter. An excessive number of broken bristles have also been found in Girl with a Pearl Earring and The Milkmaid. In addition, a number of pentimenti are visible, conceptual steps in the painting process in which the artist corrected himself, as we see here in the fur trimmings placed over the original V-neck of the jacket, the left shoulder that was lowered and the finger that was added onto the flute. This does not argue in favor of a copy or replica.

Painting on wood

Girl with a Flute, and its probable pendant tronie Girl with a Red Hat, are the only two works on wooden supports that can be linked to Vermeer. The fact that they were painted on panels has been used in the past as an argument against the authenticity of these small works, but we know from the estate inventory that at Vermeer's death in December 1675, Vermeer had, besides ten canvases, six panels ready for use. It is quite conceivable that he reserved these panels specifically for his small tronien. The surviving panel tronien have similar dimensions, comparable to the small panels used by his Leiden contemporaries Rembrandt, Gerard Dou and subsequently Frans van Mieris for this type of painting. Although dendrochronological research into the tree rings of Girl with a Red Hat has not yet proven successful, for Girl with a Flute, this method indicates that the tree from which the plank originated must have been felled between 1651 and 1661. Taking into account seasoning time, this suggests that the panel could not have been painted before approximately 1655 at the earliest, but more likely around 1665.

Painter's Studio with Color Grinder and Model Posing
David Ryckaert III
1638
Oil on panel, 59 x 95 cm.
Musee du Louvre, Paris

During the 17th century, wood panels were more readily available and cost-effective compared to canvases. Panels provided a smooth, hard surface texture compared to canvases, which allowed for different painting techniques. This surface enabled intricate details and fine brushwork, which were characteristic of the Dutch Leiden school of painting.

Wood panels used for painting were prepared through a meticulous process to ensure their stability, smoothness and longevity. Different types of wood were used, with oak and poplar being common choices. They were very thin in comparison with paintings on canvas of the samw dimension, which can be observed int some portrayals of artists working in their studios. The preparation process typically involved several steps. First, the wood panels were selected and cut to the desired size and shape. Oak was often preferred for its durability and resistance to warping, while poplar was used for its smoother surface. Sizing, a protective layer, was applied to the wood to seal the surface and prevent the paint from being absorbed into the wood fibers. This was usually done with a mixture of animal glue or gelatin, which also helped to create a barrier between the wood and subsequent layers. A mixture of powdered chalk or gypsum and animal glue, called gesso, was then applied to the sizing. Gesso provided a smooth and slightly absorbent surface that allowed the paint to adhere effectively. The ground was often applied in multiple layers, sanded between each layer to achieve a smooth finish.

The panels were then sanded to ensure the surface was even and free of imperfections. Some artists applied a thin layer of paint, called a toning layer, over the gesso to establish a neutral base color. This toning helped to create a harmonious starting point for subsequent layers of paint.