Food in the Netherlands

Fourteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

Between the fourteenth and sisteenth centuries, Dutch cuisine evolved under the influence of local resources and broader European trends. Early elite cookbooks depicted a homogeneous food culture across Europe, but regional differences emerged based on available ingredients. In the Netherlands, dairy products like milk and butter from Holland and Friesland were staples, distinguishing Dutch cooking from the bacon fat used in German and English cuisines and the oil common in Southern Europe. Common people typically consumed dishes like brij or porridge, a potage made from root vegetables, peas, herbs, meat, and fish, and soppe—a paste thickened with bread. Beer flavored with gruit ^{Gruit is an herbal mixture traditionally used to flavor and preserve beer before hops became the standard additive in brewing. Common ingredients in gruit included a variety of bitter and aromatic herbs, such as bog myrtle (sweet gale), yarrow, rosemary, and juniper berries. Each brewmaster could have a unique recipe, often influenced by local availability of herbs. In medieval Europe, gruit was controlled and taxed by local authorities or the church, which held monopolies on its sale. This control also made gruit an economic factor in brewing. The shift to hops in beer, which started in Germany and spread through the Low Countries in the 14th and 15th centuries, led to more stable, longer-lasting brews with a distinctive bitterness. Hops gradually replaced gruit as the preferred flavoring, largely due to its preservative properties and the spread of hopped beer styles throughout Europe.} was the staple drink due to poor water quality, and the introduction of hops extended beer's shelf life, making the Low Countries a major beer exporter—a status the Netherlands retains today.

Throughout Europe, monasteries and castles maintained vegetable gardens and orchards, fostering a horticultural tradition that continues today, exemplified by places like Keukenhof. Haute cuisine began to emerge in castles, and in 1510, the first Dutch-language cookbook for the upper class, Een notabel boecxken van cokeryen (ANotable Book of Cookery), was printed in Brussels. Drawing from sources like the French Le Viandier^{Le Viandier was one of the first "haute cuisine" cookbooks, offering a framework for its preparation and presentation at table. The author, presumably Guillaume Tirel, alias Taillevent, divided the book into various sections, including sections specific to the preparation of meats, entremets, fish, sauces, and other recipes. Taillevent also goes into detail on the spices that should be used for various dishes. According to Taillevent, there are three themes in haute cuisine; the use of spices, the separation of preparation for the meat and fish dishes from the sauces, and the way a dish should be presented. These were all carefully outlined in Le Viandier. To further this idea of "medieval haute cuisine", Taillevent also mentions how much emphasis was placed on presentation by noting that often dyes were used to color sauces and meat roasts were covered with gold and silver leaves.}, it reflected the lavish court life of the Burgundian Netherlands, a heritage still celebrated in southern Dutch restaurants referred to as Bourgondisch.

Significant innovations during this period included the invention of gibbing by Willem Beukelszoon (fig. 1) ^{Also known as Willem Beuckel, Willem Beuckelsz, or William Buckelsson} in 1380, which preserved herring longer and spurred a booming export industry in maatjesharing (soused herring)^{Gibbing involved removing the fish's gills and part of the gullet while leaving the pancreas intact. The pancreas produces enzymes that help in the maturation process, giving the herring its distinctive flavor. After gutting, the herring would be lightly salted and packed into barrels for storage. The addition of salt was crucial, as it preserved the fish and prevented spoilage, allowing it to be stored for extended periods and transported over long distances. Gibbing made herring a durable and flavorful product that could reach markets far beyond the Netherlands, fueling an export industry that was instrumental in the development of the Dutch maritime economy. The innovation of gibbing not only provided a lasting source of protein for the Dutch population but also became a key economic asset, laying a foundation for the Netherlands' seafaring dominance in the centuries that followed.}. This technique, which replaced salting, allowed Dutch fishermen to dominate the herring market. Gibbing was of such vital importance that it laid the foundation for the Dutch seafaring and colonial empire, a tradition celebrated annually during Vlaggetjesdag (Flag Day)^{Vlaggetjesdag is a traditional Dutch celebration marking the beginning of the season for Hollandse Nieuwe, or "New Herring," which is the year's first catch of young herring. This day celebrates the arrival of fresh herring and the long-standing Dutch fishing heritage, particularly in the seaside towns where herring has played a vital economic role. Historically, Vlaggetjesdag was the day when fishing boats were decorated with flags (hence the name "Flag Day") and sent off to catch the first batch of young herring in late spring or early summer. The event was an important cultural and economic moment, as herring was not only a dietary staple but also a major export product for the Netherlands from the 14th century onward. The herring caught on Vlaggetjesdag is specially prepared using the traditional gibbing method, ensuring it meets the quality standards for Hollandse Nieuwe.} . The event was an important cultural and economic moment, as herring was not only a dietary staple but also a major export product for the Netherlands from the fourteenth century onward.

By the seventeenth century, approximately twenty percent of the population was involved in the herring industry. Herring became a dietary staple across social classes, consumed smoked, salted, pickled, and incorporated into stews and salads. The success of the herring trade not only provided affordable protein for the poor but also funded merchant expansions into the global economy. Today, Vlaggetjesdag continues as a festive occasion in towns like Scheveningen, where people celebrate with maritime displays, food stalls, music, and, of course, the tasting of the season's first fresh herring.

The Influence of the Dutch East India Company

As the Dutch Republic entered its Golden Age, lavish dishes became available to the wealthy middle class as well. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) monopolized the trade in nutmeg, clove, mace and cinnamon, provided in 1661 more than half of the refined sugar consumed in Europe, and was the first to import coffee on a large scale to Europe, popularizing the concept of coffee houses for the masses. Apart from coffee, tea became a daily commodity, which was served with candy, marzipan and cookies. The availability of cheaper spices resulted in a tradition of spiced cookies, called speculaas.^{Speculaas are traditional spiced biscuits from the Netherlands and Belgium. Speculaas roots go back to the klaaskoek or "Saint Nicholas cake," a festive treat linked to Saint Nicholas Day on December 6. These early klaaskoeken were among the precursors to what we now recognize as speculaas. Made with a blend of warm spices like cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, and ginger, combined with flour, butter, and brown sugar, they have a crisp texture and rich flavor. Traditionally, the dough is pressed into wooden molds with intricate designs, such as windmills or Saint Nicholas figures, before baking. Once a luxury due to the cost of spices, speculaas are now a beloved holiday treat, with their flavor also appearing in spreads, ice creams, and lattes .}

Even though spices were initially used to indicate social status, this disappeared with the influx of spices in Dutch market, and it was the elite who were the first to ban the excessive use of spices (fig. 2). The cookbook De Verstandige Kok (or The Reasonable Chef), published in 1667, reflects this trend, and further more shows that meal started with green salads and cold or warm cooked vegetables with dressing, butter, herbs or edible flowers, and continued with numerous fish and meat dishes, including exotic ingredients such as dates, rice, cinnamon, ginger and saffron. Savoury tarts and pastries followed, and the meal ended with jellies, cheese, nuts and sweet pastries, washed down with hippocras, a sweet spiced wine^{Hippocras is a spiced wine popular in medieval and early modern Europe, particularly at feasts and celebrations. Made by infusing red or white wine with spices like cinnamon, ginger, cloves, nutmeg, and sweetened with sugar or honey, hippocras was then strained through a cloth (called a "manicum Hippocraticum" giving the drink its name) to remove the spices. Often served as a digestif, it was thought to aid digestion and was commonly enjoyed by the wealthy, as spices and sugar were costly. This festive drink featured frequently in noble households and festive menus, including in 17th-century Netherlands.}.

For the middle class, "The common meal pattern was comprised of breakfast; a main meal eaten in the middle or late morning; perhaps an afternoon snack/meal; and an evening meal. Breakfast consisted mainly of bread with butter or cheese and a sop, a thick soup-like mixture of bread and vegetables such as greens, onions, or cabbage. Beer was the main beverage; on the farms, buttermilk was drunk as well. Tea and coffee did not become popular until the end of the seventeenth century.

"The main meal generally consisted of no more than two or three dishes. The first one was often a hutspot (sometimes rendered in English as hotchpot), a one-pot dish of vegetables and some meat, or perhaps a grain-based sop. The second dish might be fish of one sort or another, or a meat stewed with prunes and currants. The third dish might be fruit, as well as cooked vegetables. On the farm, this meal consisted often simply of porridge, bread, and meat.

"A few hours after the midday meal, between two and three o'clock, some bread with butter or cheese was eaten by those who needed additional sustenance. Just before going to bed the final nourishment of the day was served. It could again consist of bread and butter or cheese, but leftovers from midday might be served as well. Or porridge, made from wheat flour and sweet milk, or bread and milk, might be offered. Always, as in other parts of northern Europe, beer was the drink for all meals, since water was generally quite polluted.

"Nonetheless, the mainstay of the Dutch diet was bread. This included not only regular bread, but also the sweet breads, pastries, and koekjes (cookies) of which the Dutch were and are so fond. Professional bakers were responsible for baking the daily bread, but baked goods made at home (still today) included waffles, wafers, pancakes, poffertjes (tiny puffed pancakes), and oliekoecken, now called oliebollen. The last are deep-fried balls or fritters of soft dough, with or without chopped fruit, and are forerunners of the doughnut."^{Peter G. Rose, "The Influence of the Dutch on the American Kitchen", Quadricentennial of Dutch-American Food, Part 1: The Hudson and Delaware River Valleys, Repast: Quarterly Publication of the Culinary Historians of Ann Arbor 30, no. 2 (Spring 2014): 5-6.}

However, the prevailing Calvinist ethos in the Netherlands, which emphasized hard work and frugality, influenced attitudes toward food. Meals were viewed primarily as necessary sustenance to fuel labor rather than occasions for enjoyment or leisure. This perspective is evident in the continued importance of bread and potatoes in the Dutch diet—foods that are filling and provide sustained energy. The everyday meal of the ordinary Dutchman was still a humble affair. Even in contemporary Dutch society, work-centered lifestyles persist, with quick, utilitarian meals often consumed while working.

Food for the Poor

In the seventeenth-century Netherlands, society was marked by significant economic growth and cultural development. However, this prosperity was not evenly distributed, and a substantial portion of the population lived in modest or poor conditions (fig. 4). Understanding what the poorer classes, which together comprised no less that sixty percent of the population, ate during this time provides valuable insight into the social and economic fabric of Dutch society, with bread emerging as a central element in their daily lives.

British Museum, London

For the poor, the diet was predominantly simple and based on what was affordable and readily available. Bread was the cornerstone of their meals, consumed at almost every opportunity due to its filling nature and relative affordability. Unlike the wealthy, who enjoyed white wheat bread—a symbol of status and refinement—the poor ate dark bread made from rye, barley, or a mixture of coarse grains. This darker bread was denser and more nutritious, containing higher amounts of fiber and essential nutrients that were stripped away in the refining process of making white bread.

Beyond bread, the poor supplemented their diet with porridges and gruels made from oats, barley, or other grains. These meals were economical and could be easily prepared in large quantities to feed entire families. Legumes such as beans, peas, and lentils were also staples, providing much-needed protein when meat was a luxury they could seldom afford. Vegetables, particularly root varieties like turnips, carrots, and onions, were common due to their low cost and long shelf life. When available, the poor might consume small amounts of dairy products like milk and cheese, though these were often too expensive for regular consumption.

Fish, especially herring, played a significant role in the diet of the lower classes. The success of the Dutch fishing industry, particularly in herring, made this fish plentiful and relatively cheap. Herring was consumed at all hours salted or pickled, providing an essential source of protein and fats. Foraging for wild foods such as berries, nuts, and edible plants was another way the poor augmented their diet, especially in rural areas where access to wild resources was possible.

In essence, the diet of the poor in the Netherlands was one of necessity and practicality. It reflected their limited means and the need to maximize caloric intake with minimal resources. While the Dutch Golden Age is often celebrated for its advancements and prosperity, the reliance of the poor on simple foods like dark bread highlights the economic disparities of the time. Bread was not just a food item but a central element in the daily struggle for survival among the lower classes, influencing household economies and shaping social relations. Understanding this aspect of Dutch history offers a more nuanced view of the period, reminding us that even in times of national wealth, poverty and hardship can persist beneath the surface.

Bread

The importance of bread in the lives of both the rich and the poor cannot be overstated. For the wealthy, white bread was a daily indulgence and a marker of social distinction. Its refined quality and lighter texture differentiated the affluent from the lower classes. For the poor, bread was essential for survival. It was not just food but a critical economic factor. Poor families often spent a substantial portion of their income on bread—estimates suggest it could be as high as fifty percecnt or more of their earnings. This significant expenditure on a single staple left little room in household budgets for other necessities such as clothing, housing, and medical care. For example, upon Vermeer's death, the artist had accrued a debt for bread amounting to to 617 guilders to the well-to-do Delft baker Hendrick van Buyten, who had also acquired various paintings from the artist. To contextualize this debt in terms of bread consumption, it equates to several years' worth of bread provisions for a family. Skilled artisans, such as painters or carpenters, earned about 250–400 guilders per year, meaning 617 guilders could cover the wages of a skilled worker or two servants for over a year or pay for a modest house in a small town or village. This amount indicates an ongoing and substantial reliance on credit for basic household needs, reflecting the economic pressures Vermeer's family faced during the final years of the painter's his career.

In the seventeenth-century Netherlands, bread was made primarily from locally grown grains such as wheat, rye, and barley, though the type and quality varied significantly across social classes. The bread-making process involved milling grains into flour, which was mixed with water, yeast, and sometimes salt to create dough. This dough was left to rise before being baked in communal or household ovens. Bakers used simple, wood-fired brick ovens for baking (fig. 5), and larger towns and cities often had designated bakeries that provided bread to local households.

The wealthy consumed white wheat bread, valued for its refined, soft texture and light color, which required finely milled flour and was costly to produce. This bread signified social status, emphasizing the affluence of those who could afford it. In contrast, the working class and poor ate dark rye or barley bread, often mixed with coarser grains or acorns in lean times. Dense and filling, this bread provided essential calories but lacked the refinement of white bread. Rye thrived in the cooler, wetter climate, making dark bread a practical and economical staple for lower-income households, where it also marked one's social standing.

The economic impact of bread prices on poor families was profound. Fluctuations in grain prices due to harvest failures, wars, or market manipulations could lead to sudden increases in the cost of bread. Such spikes disproportionately affected the poor, leading to hardship and, in extreme cases, famine. The government and local authorities were sometimes forced to intervene by regulating bread prices or distributing grain to prevent social unrest. Bread riots were not uncommon during periods of scarcity, underscoring the vital importance of this staple in maintaining social stability.

To cope with the economic burden, poor families employed various strategies. Some baked their own bread at home when possible, using whatever grains they could afford or access. Others might extend their bread by incorporating cheaper ingredients like acorns or chestnuts into the dough, making it less palatable but more filling. Community support networks also played a role; neighbors might share resources, and charitable institutions such as churches occasionally provided assistance in the form of food or grain.

Brij (or brei in Dutch) was a staple porridge-like dish in medieval and early modern Netherlands, particularly among the working class and poor. Made by cooking grains like oats, barley, or millet in water or milk, brij had a thick, semi-liquid consistency and could be prepared as either a savory or sweet dish. Often eaten plain, it was sometimes enriched with vegetables, herbs, or bits of meat if available. Inexpensive, filling, and easy to make in large quantities, brij was a practical meal that provided essential sustenance, making it a lasting comfort food in the Netherlands well into the seventeenth century.

Vegetables

Dutch cuisine also incorporated a wide array of vegetables, which were often grown in kitchen gardens. Commonly used vegetables included cabbages, carrots, peas, onions, and turnips. Vegetables like Jerusalem artichokes and turkeys, introduced from the New World, were integrated into Dutch food culture through exchanges with Native Americans. Other indigenous crops like corn and squash became part of Dutch agricultural practices in colonies such as New Netherland and were occasionally exported back to the Netherlands, gradually integrating New World influences.

Commonly used vegetables included:

• Cabbage: A staple in Dutch cuisine, used in various dishes and valued for its storage longevity.
• Carrots: Initially purple or yellow, the orange variety was developed by Dutch growers in the late sisteenth century.
• Onions and Leeks: Frequently used for flavoring and as primary ingredients in soups and stews.
• Parsnips and Turnips: Common root vegetables, often used in stews and mashes.
• Spinach and Endive: Leafy greens incorporated into salads and cooked dishes.
• Asparagus: Cultivated during this period, though it became more prominent in Dutch agriculture in the nineteenth century.

Many of the fruit and vegetables depicted in Dutch paintings would now be considered heritage varieties, which are not readily available in our modern supermarkets, and some will have been lost entirely from cultivation. Over time these varieties would have been superseded by other cultivars, which are perhaps more productive, resistant to certain pests and diseases, or more adaptive to the changing climate.^{"The Vegetable Seller"; A Conservation Story," English Heritage.}

These vegetables were integral to the Dutch diet, featuring prominently in soups, stews, and mashes like hutspot, a traditional dish combining potatoes, carrots, and onions. To prepare hutspot, potatoes, carrots, and onions are boiled together until tender. The mixture is then mashed, often with the addition of butter, milk, salt, and pepper to achieve a creamy consistency. Some variations include adding nutmeg for extra flavor. The origins of hutspot are linked to the Siege of Leiden in 1574 during the Eighty Years' War. According to legend, when Spanish troops hastily retreated, they left behind pots of cooked root vegetables. The starving residents of Leiden discovered and consumed this food, leading to the creation of hutspot. This event is commemorated annually on October 3rd in Leiden, where hutspot is traditionally eaten to celebrate the city's liberation.

Milk and Diary Products

The Dutch were renowned for their dairy production, especially in regions like Holland and Friesland, where the landscape was well-suited for raising cattle. Milk, butter, and cheese were dietary staples, and cheese, in particular, became a valuable export commodity.

While milk drinking itself was common, fresh milk was less commonly consumed by adults, likely due to limited refrigeration and preservation methods. Instead, it was often made into butter and cheese, which had a longer shelf life and were easier to store and transport. Nonetheless, milk and dairy products formed an essential part of the Dutch diet, reflecting both the agrarian nature of the region and its efficient use of local resources.

In the seventeenth-century Netherlands, cheese production was a well-established and economically significant practice, especially in regions like Holland and Friesland, where fertile, low-lying grasslands supported dairy farming. Cheese (fig. 6) was valued both for its nutritional qualities and its long shelf life, which made it an ideal export product. The cheese-making process itself involved curdling milk using natural rennet, followed by pressing, brining, and aging the curds to develop flavor and texture. Varieties included young, fresh cheeses, which were softer and milder, as well as aged, harder cheeses that developed sharper flavors over time.

Cheese was produced in small, local dairies and farms, where it was molded into large wheels, often branded to indicate region and quality. Gouda and Edam, now among the best-known Dutch cheeses, originated during this period and were shaped into their characteristic round or wheel forms. These cheeses became central to Dutch cuisine, eaten daily by all social classes and featured in both domestic and export markets. The Netherlands' thriving maritime trade and established market networks enabled the widespread export of Dutch cheese, which reached markets as far as the Baltic states, England, and parts of Asia, underscoring its importance to the Dutch economy during the Golden Age.

Seventeenth-century Dutch utility ware—pewter plates and tankards, silver standing salts and brandywine bowls, roemers, flutes, and beer glasses—were commonly depicted in these paintings and were integral to Dutch dining culture. Historic Dutch cookbooks and advice manuals on food and drink from the era complement the culinary delights shown in the artwork, offering insights into ingredients, preparation, and cooking methods of the time.

Baking, Confectionery

The Netherlands gained a reputation for its baked goods and confections during the seventeenth century. The sugar trade, bolstered by Caribbean colonies, led to a proliferation of sugar refineries—from three in 1605 to sixty by 1655. Additionally, Jewish confectioners, fleeing persecution in Portugal, settled in the Netherlands and contributed to the development of Dutch confectionery. An 1819 survey recorded over 5,000 bakeries in the nation, producing a wide array of breads, cakes, pastries, chocolates, and licorice candies. The Dutch tradition of spiced cookies, like speculaas, emerged from the availability of spices and sugar, becoming a hallmark of their culinary heritage.

"In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, cake and tart decorations in the Netherlands and surrounding regions were elaborate and visually striking, intended for noble and wealthy tables. Paintings from this period reveal cakes adorned with bay leaves, rosemary sprigs, silk flowers, and golden pendants (fig. 7). Some tarts featured intricate designs made with icing sugar or garnished with sugar sticks, which may have resembled early versions of birthday candles. These ornate decorations were not just for flavor but created a theatrical presentation, influenced by architectural and scenic design to impress guests at banquets. While such lavish creations were a feast for the eyes, it remains unclear whether they were primarily sweet, savory, or a combination of both. These early decorative trends emphasize how desserts served as status symbols long before modern cake design evolved.

"In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, cake and tart decorations in the Netherlands and surrounding regions were elaborate and visually striking, intended for noble and wealthy tables. Paintings from this period reveal cakes adorned with bay leaves, rosemary sprigs, silk flowers, and golden pendants. Some tarts featured intricate designs made with icing sugar or garnished with sugar sticks, which may have resembled early versions of birthday candles (fig. xx) . These ornate decorations were not just for flavor but created a theatrical presentation, influenced by architectural and scenic design to impress guests at banquets. While such lavish creations were a feast for the eyes, it remains unclear whether they were primarily sweet, savory, or a combination of both. These early decorative trends emphasize how desserts served as status symbols long before modern cake design evolved."^{Peter G. Rose, "The Influence of the Dutch on the American Kitchen", Quadricentennial of Dutch-American Food, Part 1: The Hudson and Delaware River Valleys, Repast: Quarterly Publication of the Culinary Historians of Ann Arbor 30, no. 2 (Spring 2014): 5-6.}

Dutch Beer

In the seventeenth century, beer was a staple in the Dutch diet, both for its caloric value and as a safe alternative to often-contaminated drinking water. Dutch brewing traditions evolved significantly, especially with the replacement of gruit, a mix of herbs traditionally used to flavor and preserve beer, by hops, a German innovation. This shift not only improved beer's shelf life but also facilitated broader commercial distribution, positioning the Netherlands as a major beer exporter within Europe. Dutch breweries, often centered in cities like Haarlem and Amsterdam, produced a variety of beer types, including pale and dark beers with distinct flavors. Beer production became industrialized, with breweries adapting to meet high demand, particularly in urban areas.

Dutch beer generally had a relatively low alcoholic content, typically ranging between 1% and 3% alcohol by volume (ABV). This mild strength made it suitable for everyday consumption, even by children, and it was often treated more as a nutritional staple than an intoxicating drink. Higher-alcohol beers existed as well, such as stronger brews known as "double" or "triple" beers, which might reach 6% to 8% ABV or even slightly higher. These were less commonly consumed daily and were often reserved for special occasions or export.

Beer was drunken from a vareity of glasses, but one of the most characteristic is the pass glass (or passglas in Dutch and German), a type of tall, cylindrical glass (fig. 8) that was popular in the Netherlands and Germany during the seventeenth century. It was specifically designed for drinking games and communal drinking rituals. The pass glass features multiple horizontal rings or bands etched or painted onto the surface, dividing the glass into sections. These bands served as markers for how much each participant was expected to drink before passing the glass to the next person. The idea of the pass glass was that each drinker would try to drink exactly to the next line or ring without going over, adding a challenge and a social aspect to the act of drinking. If the drinker failed to reach or stop at the designated line, they would typically have to drink down to the next line as a penalty. This made pass glasses popular for festivities, celebrations, and drinking games in taverns and social gatherings. The pass glass reflects the social and communal nature of drinking in the 17th century, where drinking games were a common part of festivities, emphasizing skill and conviviality.

The relatively low alcohol content was practical for the period, as it minimized intoxication while providing hydration and calories in a time when clean drinking water was scarce. The shift toward hopped beers further stabilized these brews, making Dutch beer more durable and suitable for export, which was critical for economic expansion in the Dutch Golden Age.

Tea and Coffee

Tea and coffee were luxury beverages, introduced through the extensive trade networks of the Dutch East India Compan. Tea, imported from China, was initially consumed by the upper classes who prized its exotic origins and health benefits. It was brewed in small, delicate porcelain cups and sipped slowly. Tea leaves were reused multiple times due to their high cost, and drinking tea was often a social event, accompanied by small pastries or sweets.

Coffee, first imported from the Middle East, also became popular among the wealthy, leading to the establishment of some of Europe's earliest coffee houses in Amsterdam in the 1670s. Coffee was served in small quantities, often in porcelain or silver cups, and enjoyed with sugar and spices like cinnamon or cloves, further highlighting its luxurious status. Both tea and coffee were consumed in controlled, ceremonial-like settings, signifying wealth and sophistication. By the late seventeenth century, these drinks began to spread beyond the elite, gradually becoming more accessible as imports increased.

Food in Dutch Painting

During the Netherlands' Golden Age, Dutch art and culinary traditions flourished, reflecting the abundance and prosperity of the time. Paintings by Dutch and Flemish masters such as Jan Steen, Clara Peeters, Adriaen van Ostade, Jan Davidsz. de Heem, Pieter Claesz, and Gerret Willemsz. Heda portrayed epicurean delights set against backdrops of taverns, open markets, kitchens, and tabletops. These works depict cooks, scullery maids, brewers, bakers, fishmongers, and pancake makers, documenting the bounty of the land and its presentation during a period when New Netherland (modern-day New York) was in its infancy.

These paintings are reminiscent of the art collections owned by New Netherland settlers like Hendrick Kip, a public official who arrived in 1637 with artworks including a landscape by Vincent Leckerbetien. Jacob De Lange, a surgeon and barber in New Amsterdam, had an estate inventory listing banquet scenes, still lifes, a genre scene of a cobbler, rustic views, and a picture of a "plucked cock."

Pronkstillevens

Emerging in the 1640s during the Dutch Golden Age, pronkstillevens, or sumptuous still lifes, became a prominent artistic genre (fig. 9 & 10). These paintings featured extravagant banquets with lavish foods and luxurious artifacts like intricate silverware, gold goblets, and Chinese porcelains, showcasing both artistic skill and the wealth of Dutch society.

A defining feature was the meticulous rendering of textures, creating vivid, tactile experiences. Artists used houding—a harmonious blend of composition, color, and lighting—to provide depth and balance. Dark backgrounds highlighted vibrant colors and intricate details, enhancing light effects. Subtle reflections on surfaces like silverware and glass demonstrated mastery over light and shadow.

Beyond displays of opulence, these works held significant cultural meanings. Influenced by Renaissance humanist interests, they reflected appreciation for earthly delights and curiosity about the natural world. The paintings embodied conspicuous consumption, symbolizing wealth and status by depicting exotic foods and luxury items, indicating the food customs of the rich—white bread, for example, was a luxury. Health beliefs were subtly integrated; pairing oysters with lemons was thought to aid digestion.

The Dutch Golden Age saw the Netherlands as a maritime nation with primacy in trade. Bread symbolized the nation's prosperity, and sea trade brought exotic goods like Mediterranean lemons and Chinese oranges—called sinaasappel ("China's apple") in Dutch. Domestic foods like cheese and herrings were often absent, replaced by foreign items to emphasize sophistication.

Pronkstillevens carried symbolic messages. Elements like grapes, bread, and citrus fruits alluded to Christian symbolism. Rotten fruit could symbolize the vanity of earthly life, while finely crafted objects hinted at the pursuit of everlasting life. Some paintings conveyed moral lessons on moderation, such as Jan Davidsz. de Heem's 1652 work inscribed with "Niet hoe veel" ("Not too much").

The European aristocracy's appreciation for illusionistic paintings led Dutch artists to infuse grandeur into their works. The elite merchant and regent class commissioned these still lifes to adorn grand houses, symbolizing status and refinement. The depicted delicacies and luxurious items impressed guests and conveyed hospitality, highlighting the Netherlands' global reach and economic power during the Golden Age.

Haarlem Still-Life Painting

Haarlem's seventeenth-century still-life tradition, pioneered by artists like Pieter Claesz (1597/1598– 1661) and Willem Claesz Heda (1593/1594–1680/1682) (fig. 11) emphasized muted tonal painting, meticulous detail, and symbolic depth. Known for their restrained color palettes, Haarlem still lifes focused on everyday objects—bread, cheese, pewter, and glass—arranged against plain, often dark backgrounds. This style highlighted textures and light, creating a quiet yet precise aesthetic that contrasted with the more opulent still lifes of other regions. Objects like lemons, bread, and overturned goblets subtly conveyed vanitas themes, reminding viewers of life's transience and material impermanence, reflecting the Calvinist values of modesty and contemplation prevalent in Haarlem.

Refined sugar, intoduced in the sixteenth century, was primarily a luxury item affordable mainly for the wealthy, but as sugar production expanded, it gradually became more accessible to the middle class. Initially, the costs of sugar restricted its use to the elite, who consumed it in candies, preserves, sweetened drinks, and even as a status symbol, since its refined form was visually appealing and rare. By the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, however, sugar prices began to drop somewhat, making small quantities affordable for the middle class. This accessibility allowed middle-class households to use refined sugar in modest amounts, especially in special treats or holiday confections. The poor had limited access to sugar and typically relied on less expensive sweeteners, like honey, when available.

Waffles as a Luxury Food

Though waffles are now a familiar breakfast item, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, they were considered a luxury (fig. 12). Paintings from this period show waffles being enjoyed at major celebrations, such as citywide festivities for Lent, but they were rare treats rather than everyday food. Wafer cakes were often served at elite banquets as a final course, intended to aid digestion. Access to these exclusive gatherings was limited to the wealthy, with separate rooms or buildings dedicated to banquets, where highly spiced and expensive sweets like waffles were served.

The first known waffle recipe appeared in the fourteenth-century Le Ménagier de Paris,^{Le Ménagier de Paris (The Householder of Paris) is a 14th-century French manuscript that serves as a comprehensive household guide, written around 1393. It was created by an elderly Parisian man for his much younger wife, intending to provide her with advice on managing a household, behaving virtuously, and fulfilling her domestic duties. It contains one of the earliest known collections of French recipes, including techniques for preparing meat, fish, and desserts.} includes one of the earliest known recipes for waffles, offering a simple method that reflects medieval cooking practices. The recipe describes a batter made of eggs, salt, wine, and flour, notably lacking any leavening agents, which would give it a dense texture compared to modern waffles. The batter was cooked using specialized irons, marking an early stage in the evolution of waffle-making techniques and equipment. This recipe provides a glimpse into the straightforward yet resourceful culinary methods of fourteenth-century France.

Waffle irons began to evolve in the fifteenth century, with rectangular shapes and shallow grid patterns distinct from earlier oublie irons. By the sixteenth century, artists like Pieter Bruegel (c. 1525/1530–1569) (fig. 13) depicted waffles with detailed grid patterns, suggesting a batter similar to today's Brussels waffles. The Dutch manuscript preserved in the Royal Academy for Dutch Language and Literature introduced spices like ginger and cinnamon, and the Belgian Een Antwerps kookboek added leavening with beer yeast, creating a lighter texture that required deeper irons. Waffles became popular in France, with King François I owning silver waffle irons, and Charles IX regulating vendor distances in 1560 to reduce conflicts.